The Survey of 1988 NFL players, conducted by KFF in partnership with ESPN, looks at the overall health and well-being of former professional football players who played in the 1988 NFL season. The results of this survey provide insight into the lives of these former players as they approach traditional retirement age. While many are grappling with the immense toll the sport has taken on their physical and neurological health, most say they would do it all over again.

Explore ESPN’s Reporting on This Survey

• Survey: Most NFL retirees would play again despite costs
• Survey details physical and mental health toll of NFL
• Survey: Black NFL vets report more disability, dementia
• Survey: NFL vets split on youth tackle football risks
• Voices from the ESPN/KFF Survey of 1988 NFL Players

The Survey of 1988 NFL players, conducted by KFF in partnership with ESPN, explores the overall health and well-being of former professional football players who played in the 1988 NFL season. The aim of the project is to examine the physical, emotional, and financial well-being of a cohort of professional football players as they approach typical U.S. retirement age. Overall, the survey finds that these former players face a variety of health issues, including chronic pain and mobility problems, cognitive impairment, and mental health challenges – often at higher rates than their peers in the general population.

The survey also finds that former Black players are consistently more likely than White players to face physical, neurological, and mental health issues alongside poorer financial outcomes. This survey’s results document how racial disparities in health, health care, and income that occur in the U.S. persist among these former NFL players despite the potential financial and career benefits of playing in the NFL. At the same time, former Black players face unique challenges, as some of the racial disparities in health outcomes found in this survey – such as disability and cognition issues — are not always similarly observed among men the same age in the general population. Such data may inform and direct efforts to address such disparities among former NFL players and advance equity.

Despite these struggles, players’ views on their careers are overwhelmingly positive, and the vast majority, including both Black players and White players, say they would make the choice to play professional football again, extolling the benefits of the game on their life and relationships and citing the importance of brotherhood and the bonds they formed while playing.

5 Key Takeaways From the KFF/ESPN Survey of 1988 NFL Players

1. Overall, majorities of these players say professional football has had a positive impact on their life, including their finances, career opportunities, and relationships with family and friends. At the same time, most say the game has negatively impacted their physical health and one-third say it has had a negative impact on their mental health. For more information, see: Career Reflections / Views on Youth Football

2. Compared to men in their age range in the population overall, former NFL players from the 1988 season are more likely to rate their physical health negatively and to report living with certain types of disability, chronic pain that interferes with their daily lives, cognitive challenges, and mental health issues. The gaps between players and men their age on these health outcomes hold when controlling for race. Incidence of these reported adverse health outcomes does not differ consistently between different position groupings (such as linemen v. skill positions, offensive v. defensive positions, and others), however, defensive players are more likely than offensive players to report some cognitive issues, such as worsening confusion and memory loss in the past year. For this survey, analysis by individual position types was not possible due to insufficient sample sizes. For more information, see: Health Issues

3. The survey also finds stark racial disparities between players across a wide array of health measures. Black players are consistently more likely than White players to report adverse health outcomes, including physical limitations, cognitive problems, mental health challenges, pain, and disability. In many of these instances, similar disparities are not present among men in a similar age range in the population overall. These racial disparities may reflect a range of demographic and other differences between Black and White players, including racial differences by positions played (See Appendix Fig. 4), income, and access to health care and insurance. Nonetheless, some of these racial differences in reported physical disabilities and cognitive problems remain even when controlling for other factors such as higher risk position groups, income, age, and years played, suggesting that other socioeconomic factors may impact health. For more information, see: Health Issues and Mental Health

4. Given the range of health issues reported by former players, health care access plays a key role in players’ overall well-being. While these former players have higher average incomes than men their age in the population at large, many report having gone without health insurance and necessary care since they stopped playing football, with about one in five saying they went without needed health care in the past year because of the cost. In addition, struggles affording medical bills, health insurance and other day-to-day expenses are particularly pronounced among Black players and those living with a disability. For many players, these financial difficulties may be tied to injuries they incurred during their professional football careers, as about three in ten say they were unable to work at some point since they stopped playing due to a football-related injury. For more information, see: Health Care and Finances

5. Despite the physical toll playing football has had on many of these players, the vast majority say they would choose to play in the NFL again if they could go back, citing a love of the game, camaraderie with teammates, and a strong sense of purpose. Most players who are parents say they encouraged their children to play football if they expressed an interest, and a majority oppose banning youth tackle football below the high school level – although they are more divided on the whether the benefits of youth football outweigh the overall risks. For more information, see: Career Reflections

Key Takeaways

• The vast majority of former players from the 1988 NFL season say playing professional football has had a positive impact on their life but a negative impact on their physical health. Overall, nine in ten former players say playing professional football has had a positive impact on their life in general (91%), with majorities reporting positive impacts on their social life (73%), financial situation (72%), employment situation (65%), and relationships with family (65%). At the same time, about three in four (77%) players say the game has had a negative impact on their physical health, and one-third say it had a negative impact on their mental health.
• Despite these negative health impacts, the overwhelming majority (90%) of 1988 players say they would choose to play professional football again if they could go back, while just 4% say they would not play again. These shares are consistent across Black and White players despite disparities in reported health and financial outcomes and among players who report negative impacts on their physical or mental health. In open-ended responses, players cite a love of the game, the importance of brotherhood, the instillation of a strong sense of purpose, and valuable life skills as reasons why they would do it all over again.
• Nearly all former 1988 NFL players are parents, and two-thirds (73%) say at least one of their children played organized tackle football at some level. However, when it comes to children playing tackle football, players from the 1988 season are somewhat divided on the risks: about half (47%) of ’88 players say that when it comes to youth playing tackle football before high school, “the benefits outweigh the risks,” while about four in ten (37%) say the “risks outweigh the benefits.” Nonetheless, most players who are parents (57%) say they encouraged their children to play football if they expressed an interest, and seven in ten (71%) oppose banning youth tackle football below the high school level. This may be a reflection of how much the sport has changed since their time in the NFL; about eight in ten (78%) former players say that professional football is safer now compared to when they were playing.

Views on the Overall Impact of an NFL Career

An overwhelming majority of 1988 players (91%) say that playing professional football has had a positive impact on their life in general. This positive impact is echoed in other facets of their lives, with a majority saying professional football had a positive impact on their social life and relationship with friends (73%), their financial situation (72%), relationships with family (65%), and their employment situation or career opportunities (65%) since they stopped playing football. Just about one in ten say their football career has had a negative impact in each of these areas.

Players paint a far more negative picture when it comes to the game’s impact on their physical health. About three in four players (77%) say playing professional football had a negative impact on their physical health, while just 14% say it had a positive impact. Players are more divided on how their careers impacted their mental health. About four in ten (43%) say the game had a positive impact on their mental health, while one-third say it had a negative impact (33%). Among Black players, similar shares say playing football had a negative (41%) and a positive (39%) impact on their mental health (see Appendix for details on player race and ethnicity).

Most players report being generally satisfied with their lives, including majorities of Black and White players who say they are “very” or “somewhat satisfied” with their life as whole, their relationships with their spouses, children, and former teammates, the number of meaningful connections they have with other people, and their personal financial situation.

Large majorities of both Black and White players express satisfaction with these aspects of their lives, but fewer Black players than White players report being satisfied with their life as a whole (74% vs. 89%) or their financial situation (62% vs. 86%).

Despite reporting negative impacts on their mental and physical health, an overwhelming majority of players from the 1988 season (90%) say they would still make the decision to play professional football if they could go back—a share that is consistent across Black and White players despite disparities in reported health and financial outcomes. Even among players who say football negatively impacted their physical health, nine in ten (88%) say they would make the decision to play again. A somewhat smaller share, but still a large majority, of players who say the game had a negative impact on their mental health say they would play again (78%).

When it comes to supportive relationships, most players from the 1988 seasons say they think their teammates (79%) and their coaches (64%) cared “a lot” or “some” about their overall well-being during their professional football career. Far fewer (36%) say they think the owners of the teams they played for cared about their overall well-being. The shares who say their teammates, coaches, or team owners cared about their well-being is similar among Black players and White players.

Views on Safety, Youth Football, and Today’s NFL

When it comes to youth playing tackle football, players from the 1988 season are somewhat divided on whether the benefits outweigh the risks. Nonetheless, most players who are parents say they encouraged their children to play football if they expressed an interest, and a majority oppose banning youth tackle football below the high school level. This may be partially explained by the fact that the vast majority of 1988 players say they think professional football is safer now compared to when they played.

Nearly all players from the 1988 season are parents (96%) and a majority of players (67%) say they have coached a high school or youth football team. Among players who are parents, most say their children played football at some level (73%). This includes four in ten who say at least one of their children played at the college (33%) or professional level (8%).

Most former players say they encouraged their children to play football, with many citing the important life lessons instilled by playing, including the importance of teamwork, camaraderie, discipline and work ethic. Overall, about six in ten (57%) players from the 1988 season say they encouraged their children to play tackle football if they expressed an interest compared to just 7% who say they discouraged their children. One in five (19%) say it depends on the child, while 16% report that none of their children ever expressed an interest in playing.

Players are somewhat divided on the relative risks of children playing tackle football below the high school level, with about half (47%) saying the “benefits outweigh the risks” and about four in ten (37%) saying the “risks outweigh the benefits,” while 16% say they have no opinion. Perhaps reflecting the sport’s impact on their health, Black players and players living with a disability are each less likely than White players and those without a disability, respectively, to say the benefits of youth playing tackle football outweigh the risks. Past studies among former NFL players have linked playing youth tackle football with cognitive issues later in life.

In recent years, there has been much debate over banning youth tackle football across the U.S., with legislators in several states introducing bills to ban tackle football below the high school level. Attempts to ban tackle football for youth, including a recent bill in California, have been unsuccessful thus far. The majority (71%) of players from the 1988 season say they oppose banning youth tackle football under the high school level and a quarter (26%) saying they would support such a ban. While few players across demographics support banning youth tackle football, the shares who support a ban are slightly higher among Black players compared to White players (29% v. 22%) and players living with a disability compared to those who are not (29% v. 21%).

Since many of these players have retired from professional football, the game has changed markedly when it comes to safety, with changes to personal equipment and updated rules aimed at making the game safer. Most players (78%) from the 1988 season agree that professional football is safer now compared to when they were playing football, while 15% say it’s about the same and just 6% say it is more dangerous now.

Key Takeaways

• Across a range of measures, former NFL players from the 1988 season report being in worse health and experiencing more frequent pain and higher levels of disability compared to men their age in the general population, even when controlling for race. Former players are about three times as likely as other men their age to report living with a disability (60% v. 21%) and about twice as likely to report experiencing pain all or most days in the past three months (69% v. 33%). In open-ended responses players describe the isolating effects of pain and the toll it has taken on their daily life and mental health.
• Just over half (55%) of players say they have experienced confusion or memory loss in the past year that is happening more often or getting worse – more than three times the share of men their age who say the same (16%). A notable share of former players report having been diagnosed with a neurological disorder, including about three in ten (28%) who say a health provider has told them they have post-concussion syndrome (28%) and 15% who report being diagnosed with dementia, including Alzheimer’s disease. Nearly one in five (18%) say a doctor or other health care provider has told them they have chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), although CTE cannot definitively be diagnosed until after death. Defensive players are more likely than those in offensive positions to report worsening confusion and memory loss in the past year (63% v. 50%) and being diagnosed with a neurological condition (52% v. 37%), including post-concussion syndrome (36% v. 23%). Incidence of these neurological health issues does not differ consistently by other position groupings, such as linemen v. skill positions. Analysis by individual positions is not possible due to insufficient sample sizes.
• Among former ’88 NFL players, there are consistent, stark racial disparities when it comes to physical and neurological health outcomes. Black players are more likely than White players to report living with some kind of disability (69% v. 48%), particularly those related to difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions (60% v. 30%), and difficulty walking or climbing stairs (45% v. 27%). Notably, these wide racial disparities are not present among men in the same age range in the general population. Black players are twice as likely as White players to say they’ve been told by a doctor that they have CTE (25% v. 10%) or dementia (21% v. 9%), and significantly more likely to say they’ve been diagnosed with post-concussion syndrome (36% v. 19%). Though Black players are more likely than White players to have played in positions that previous research has linked to increased risk for cognitive problems, Black players’ higher incidence of disability and worsening confusion and memory problems remain significant compared to White players even when controlling for other factors, including higher risk position groups , income, age, and years played, suggesting other socioeconomic factors or experiences may be a contributing factor.
• While Black players are more likely to report disability and pain that limits their life activities, White players report having a higher number of football-related surgeries compared to Black players, with half of White players compared to a third of Black players saying they’ve had five or more. Higher incidence of surgeries among White players may reflect disparities in health care access and financial situation. Black players are more likely than White players to say they did not have health insurance coverage for a year or more after their NFL career.

Overall Health and Disability

About six in ten (62%) players from the 1988 season describe their physical health as either “excellent,” “very good,” or “good,” while about four in ten (38%) describe their physical health as “fair” or “poor.” Compared to men in their age cohort in the population overall, these former NFL players are more likely to describe their health negatively (38% v. 24%). These differences hold among Black players and White players when compared to their respective peers in the general population. (See Methodology for additional details on general population data.)

Players from the 1988 season are much more likely than men their age to report living with a disability, especially those related to cognition and mobility. Overall, six in ten players from the 1988 season report currently living with a disability — three times the share of men in their age range overall (21%). Players living with a disability include those who say they have difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions (47%), serious difficulty walking or climbing stairs (36%), difficulty dressing or bathing (18%), are deaf or have serious difficulty hearing (14%), or are blind or have serious difficulty seeing even when wearing glasses (8%). Players are about eight times as likely as men their age to report serious difficulty concentrating, remembering or making decisions, and at least three times as likely to report serious difficulty walking or climbing stairs or difficulty dressing or bathing. The higher incidence of disability among 1988 players compared to men their age holds when controlling for race, with both Black players and White players more likely than their peers in the general population to report living with a disability. Players who played in defensive positions are somewhat more likely than offensive players to report difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions (55% v. 42%). The share who reports living with a disability overall, however, does not significantly differ by defensive v. offensive positions or linemen v. skill positions. Incidence of reported disability by specific positions is not possible due to insufficient sample sizes.

Larger shares of Black players compared to White players report having some type of disability (69% v. 48%), with Black players twice as likely to report serious difficulties concentrating or remembering (60% v. 30%). Larger shares of Black players than White players also report serious difficulty walking or climbing stairs, difficulty dressing or bathing, or being blind or having serious difficulty seeing. These large racial disparities are not similarly observed among men in this age range in the general population.

Black players’ higher incidence of disability compared to White players remains significant when controlling for other factors, including higher risk position groups, income, age, and years played. The higher incidence of disabilities – and other adverse health outcomes – among Black players could be attributed to a number of factors, including racial differences in positions played (See Appendix Fig. 4), injury incidence, and access to health care and other services. Notably, Black players are more likely than White players to say they did not have health insurance coverage for a year or more after their NFL career.

Chronic Pain

Seven in ten (69%) players say they experienced pain either “every day” or “most days” in the past three months, twice the share of men their age in the general population (33%) – a difference that holds among both Black players and White players compared to their peers in the general population. This includes about a third (35%) of players who say they experienced pain that limited their life or work activities every or most days in the past three months, compared to about half that share among men their age overall (13%). While similar shares of Black players and White players report experiencing pain all or most days (71% and 67%, respectively), Black players are more likely than White players to report experiencing pain that limited their life or work activities all or most days in the past three months (41% v. 28%). Similar racial disparities are not present among men in a similar age range in the general population. The share who reports living with chronic pain does not notably differ by different position groupings, such as linemen v. skill positions or offensive v. defensive. Incidence of chronic pain by specific positions is unreportable due to insufficient sample sizes.

In open-ended responses, many players describe the enormous toll pain has had on their daily life, inhibiting their ability to spend time with family and friends, partake in hobbies, and work. Alongside these isolating effects of chronic pain, many describe negative impacts on their mental health and emotional well-being.

In addition to dealing with chronic pain in higher shares than men their age, players from the 1988 season are also more likely than men in their age cohort to say they’ve been diagnosed with arthritis and related disorders. Two-thirds (66%) of players say they have been told by a doctor or other health professional that they have arthritis, gout, lupus, or fibromyalgia compared to about four in ten (38%) men in a similar age range in the general population who report a diagnosis. This difference holds across racial groups, with both Black players and White players more likely than their peers to report a diagnosis. When it comes to other common chronic health conditions like hypertension, high cholesterol, and diabetes, somewhat similar shares of players and men their age overall report having been diagnosed.

One-third of players say they have been told by a doctor that they have obesity or are overweight, including similar shares of Black players and White players. Prior KFF polling found a similar share of men in this age range (38%) saying they were diagnosed as overweight or obese in the past five years.

Football-Related Surgeries

The overwhelming majority (87%) of NFL players from the 1988 season say they have had at least one orthopedic surgery related to playing football, including three in ten (39%) who have had five or more surgeries. While Black players are more likely than White players to report adverse physical health issues including disabilities and chronic pain that limits their life and work, a somewhat larger share of White players compared to Black players say they have had at least one football-related surgery (91% v. 84%), with White players being more likely to say they’ve had five or more surgeries (50% v. 33%). These racial disparities may reflect differences between Black and White players in post-football income and access to health care, which in turn may contribute to the long-term effects of increased pain and disability among Black players.

Neurological Health, Confusion and Memory Loss

Many players from the 1988 season report cognitive issues, including worsening confusion or memory loss and being diagnosed with neurological conditions including chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)²  and dementia. There are stark racial disparities when it comes to neurological health among these players, with much larger shares of Black players reporting dementia and CTE diagnoses. Black players are also more likely than White players to report worsening confusion and memory issues, a disparity that is not similarly observed among men their age in the general population. Players, including both Black and White players, are much more likely to report worsening confusion and memory loss issues compared to their peers in the general population.

Notably, nearly all players from the 1988 season (95%) report experiencing a head injury while playing football, which could include anything from “seeing stars,” a mild concussion, or fully losing consciousness. Past research has linked head injuries sustained while playing contact sports like football to the development of neurological issues, including CTE – a link that has been acknowledged by the National Football League (NFL).

About four in ten (43%) players from the 1988 season say they have been told by a doctor or other health professional that they have some type of neurological disease or condition, with the largest shares reporting diagnoses for post-concussion syndrome (28%), CTE (18%), and dementia, including Alzheimer’s disease (15%). Fewer players report being diagnosed with other neurological issues, including having a stroke (5%), Parkinson’s disease (5%), chronic fatigue syndrome (4%), or a seizure disorder (2%). Defensive players are more likely than those in offensive positions to have been diagnosed with a neurological condition (52% v. 37%), including post-concussion syndrome (36% v. 23%).

Black players are about twice as likely as White players to report neurological diagnoses, including for post-concussion syndrome (36% v. 19%), CTE (25% v. 10%), and dementia (21% v. 9%). Previous studies have shown that Black adults are more likely to develop dementia compared to White adults but less likely to receive a diagnosis.

About half (55%) of players from the 1988 season say they have experienced confusion or memory loss in the past year that is happening more often or getting worse, including larger shares of Black players compared to White players (65% v. 43%) – a disparity that is not present among men their age overall. Players are much more likely than men their age overall (55% v. 16%) to report worsening confusion or memory loss in the past year, a difference that holds among both Black players and White players when compared to their peers in the general population.

Beyond experiencing worsening confusion and memory issues, many players report that these issues have adversely affected their ability to carry out daily tasks, from household chores to working and socializing. About one-third of players say they have experienced worsening confusion or memory loss in the past year that has either caused them to give up day-to-day household activities at least “sometimes” (34%) or interfered with their ability to work, volunteer, or engage in social activities outside their home at least “sometimes” (37%). Black players are twice as likely as White players to report these adverse effects of worsening confusion and memory loss. Players who played in defensive positions are more likely than those who played offensive positions to report worsening confusion and memory loss in the past year (63% v. 50%). Incidence of reported worsening confusion or memory loss by specific positions is not possible due to insufficient sample sizes.

Key Takeaways

• Many former NFL players from the 1988 season report struggling with mental health issues, and often in higher shares than men their age in the general U.S. population. About one-third (34%) of former players describe their mental health and emotional well-being as “fair” or “poor,” compared to just one in ten men their age overall. Additionally, players are more likely than men their age to report feeling lonely (40% v. 25%), depressed (45% v. 24%), or anxious (53% v. 34%) at least “sometimes” in the past year.
• Black players are particularly likely to report negative mental health outcomes and are much more likely than White players to report regular feelings of anxiety (62% v. 42%), depression (52% v. 36%), and loneliness (51% v. 25%). These racial differences among former NFL players are not similarly observed among the general population of men ages 55 to 75, and Black players are more likely than Black men their age to report feelings of loneliness, anxiety, and depression in the past year.
• One-quarter of former ’88 players say there was a time in the past three years when they needed mental health services or medication but didn’t get them, about three times the share among other men their age. The share of players who report skipping needed mental health services rises to over half (55%) among those who describe their mental health negatively, and Black players are twice as likely as White players to say they skipped needed mental health services in the past three years (31% v. 16%).
• While self-reported addiction issues are not particularly common among players from the ’88 season, those with chronic pain, disabilities, and those in fair or poor mental health are more likely to say they’ve ever been addicted to alcohol or prescription painkillers compared to their peers. For example, players with fair or poor mental health are more likely than those who describe their mental health as at least “good” to say they’ve been addicted to alcohol (24% v. 15%) or prescription pain killers (14% v. 5%). Similarly, players who experience pain at least “most days” are more likely than those who do not to report ever being addicted to alcohol (21% v. 12%) or prescription painkillers (10% v. 2%).

Self-Reported Mental Health and Wellbeing

About one-third (34%) of players from the 1988 NFL season describe their current mental health and emotional well-being as “fair” or “poor,” including a larger share of Black players (46%) compared to White players (21%) (see Appendix for more details on player race and ethnicity). Notably, Black players are nearly twice as likely as White players to say that playing professional football had a negative impact on their mental health (41% v. 23%). Players who report having a disability, worsening confusion and memory loss, and fair or poor physical health are all more likely than those who do not to negatively rate their current mental health status. Past research has found that Black players are more likely to report negative physical and mental health outcomes, even when controlling for position and years played. Other factors may contribute to such disparities, such as social determinants of health, income, and access to health care. Among players from the 1988 season, Black players are more likely than their White counterparts to report negative physical health status, disability, and cognitive problems – all of which may contribute to and exacerbate mental health challenges.

Former ‘88 players are about three times as likely as men their age overall, per prior KFF polling, to describe their mental health as fair or poor. While both Black players and White players are each more likely than their peers in the general population to describe their mental health negatively, the gap between Black players and Black men their age is much wider (46% v. 12%). In fact, self-reported mental health status does not differ notably by race among men ages 55-75 overall.

Poorer mental health outcomes among former players may be tied to physical health issues, including chronic pain and disabilities. Players who report having pain at least “most days” in the past three months are far more likely than those who experienced pain less frequently to describe their mental health negatively (43% v. 13%). Similarly, players who report living with a disability are far more likely than those who do not to describe their mental health negatively (52% v. 6%).

Players from the 1988 NFL season are more likely than men their age overall to report regular feelings of loneliness, anxiety and depression, with Black players much more likely than both White players and Black men their age to say they experienced these feelings. About half of former players from the ’88 season say they have felt anxious (53%) or depressed (45%) at least “sometimes” in the past 12 months, while four in ten say they’ve felt lonely at least “sometimes.” Larger shares of Black players compared to White players report experiencing these feelings at least “sometimes” in the past year, including anxiety (62% v. 42%), depression (52% v. 36%), and loneliness (51% v. 25%).

In each instance, players are more likely than men their age to report these feelings per past KFF polling, with large gaps between Black players and Black men their age overall. While White players are more likely than White men their age in general to report regular feelings of depression and anxiety by about a 10-point margin, they report feelings of loneliness in similar shares to White men their age.

As with their mental health overall, players who report living with disabilities or chronic pain are much more likely than those who do not to report regular feelings of loneliness, anxiety, and depression. For example, players who report living with a disability are at least twice as likely as players without a disability to say they at least sometimes felt anxious (71% v. 27%), depressed (60% v. 21%), or lonely (54% v. 19%) in the past year.

Having a strong, local support network of friends or family is associated with a lower incidence of feelings of anxiety, depression, and loneliness among players. Players who say they have at least “a fair amount” of friends or family living nearby whom they can ask for support are far less likely than those who say they have “just a few” or “none” to say they felt anxious (40% v. 70%), depressed (30% v. 61%), or lonely (25% v. 58%) at least sometimes in the past year. Prior KFF polling has found a strong relationship between local support networks and mental health.

Even among players living with a disability, strong support networks are linked with a lower incidence of regular feelings of loneliness, anxiety, and depression. Among players with a disability, those who have at least a fair amount of friends of family living nearby who they can ask for help or support are far less likely than those who do not to report feeling lonely (35% v. 71%), depressed (45% v. 73%), or anxious (56% v. 85%) at least sometimes in the past 12 months.

Notable shares of 1988 NFL players report sleep, appetite, and anger problems, with these issues far more common among players who also report cognitive issues. Most players (68%) say they have had trouble falling or staying asleep or sleeping too much at least “sometimes” in the past 30 days, while around four in ten say they have experienced poor appetite or overeating (44%) or difficulty controlling their temper (39%). The share reporting these issues, however, rises drastically among players with worsening cognitive issues. Players who say they have experienced worsening confusion or memory loss in the past year are much more likely than those who have not to report experiencing issues related to sleep (82% v. 51%), eating (60% v. 23%) or controlling their temper (57% v. 17%) at least sometimes in the past 30 days.

Access to Mental Health Care

With many 1988 players reporting mental health issues, notable shares say they have forgone needed mental health services in the past three years, including even larger shares of those who describe their mental health negatively. Overall, 16% of players say they have received mental health counseling or therapy in the past 12 months. However, a quarter of players say there was a time in the past three years when they thought they needed mental health services or medication but did not get them — three times the share of men their age overall who said the same (8%) in prior KFF polling. The share of former players who say they’ve gone without needed mental health services in the past three years is even higher among those who are likely most in need of such services; just over half (55%) of players who describe their mental health as “fair” or “poor” say they’ve gone without needed mental health care in the past three years.

Disparities in accessing mental health care also occur across race, with Black players about twice as likely as White players to report forgoing needed mental health care (31% v. 16%). This disparity is not similarly observed among the general population; among men ages 55 to 75, similar shares of Black and White men report forgoing needed mental health services in the past three years.

Substance Use and addiction

While self-reported addiction issues are not particularly common among players from the ’88 season, the shares are higher among those who report experiencing chronic pain, disability, or describe their mental health negatively. Overall, about one in five (18%) players say they have ever been addicted to alcohol and fewer say they have ever been addicted to prescription painkillers (8%) or any illegal drug such as heroin, fentanyl, methamphetamine, or cocaine (3%).

Players who say they experience pain at least “most days” are nearly twice as likely as those who do not to say they’ve been addicted to alcohol (21% v. 12%) and much more likely to say they’ve ever been addicted to prescription painkillers (10% v. 2%). Similarly, players who describe their mental health as “fair” or “poor” and players who are living with a disability are each more likely than their peers to say they’ve ever been addicted to alcohol or prescription painkillers. Few players (1%) – including similar shares across mental health status and experiences with pain or disability – say they have ever had a drug overdose that required hospitalization.

Among players who say they were ever addicted to alcohol, prescription painkillers, or any illegal drug, three-quarters (75%) say they have never gotten treatment for addiction or substance use disorder.

Key Takeaways

• With many former players from the 1988 NFL season reporting an array of health issues, access to health care and insurance likely plays a key role in players’ overall well-being. While most players (95%) say they are currently covered by some type of health insurance, four in ten (41%) report being uninsured at some point since they stopped playing professional football, including about a quarter (27%) who say they were uninsured for a year or more. Black players – who are much more likely than White players to report physical and cognitive health issues – are more likely than White players to say they have been uninsured at some point since leaving the NFL (48% v. 33%), including for a year or more (33% v. 20%).
• Some former ‘88 NFL players report facing cost barriers when accessing health care in the past year. About one in five (21%) say they skipped or postponed getting health care they needed because of the cost in the past 12 months, while 16% say they’ve had problems paying their medical bills and 14% have had problems affording health insurance. These problems are even more common among players living with a disability, including skipping needed health care because of the cost (28%), problems paying medical bills (24%), and problems affording health insurance (21%).
• While most 1988 NFL players say their football career had a positive impact on their finances and report higher average incomes than men their age in the general population, there are stark disparities in income and financial challenges by race and disability status. One-third of former players say it has been at least “somewhat difficult” to maintain steady employment or have a stable career since they stopped playing professionally, rising to 44% among Black players and 46% among players living with a disability. For some of these players, difficulties maintaining employment are tied to health issues they incurred from playing professional football. Three in ten (29%) former players say since they stopped playing professional football they have been unable to work at some point due to a football-related injury, including a larger share of Black players compared to White players (37% v. 19%) and defensive players compared to offensive players (36% v. 25%).

Health Insurance and Access to Care

While nearly all former players (95%) say they are currently covered by health insurance, about four in ten (41%) report not being covered by health insurance at some point since they stopped playing football, including about one in four (27%) who say they were uninsured for a year or more. The share who reports being uninsured at some point post-NFL rises to about half of players living with a disability (49%) and Black players (48%). Notably, past KFF analysis has found that nationally, Black adults have a higher uninsured rate than White adults.

About one in five (21%) players from the 1988 season – including similar shares of Black players and White players – report postponing or skipping health care they needed in the past 12 months because of the cost, compared to 12% of men in a similar age range who reported the same in past KFF polling. This difference may reflect an increased need for care among these players, who are more likely than other men their age to be living with disabilities and cognitive issues. Overall, one in eight players (12%) – including similar shares across race – say their health got worse because they skipped or postponed needed care because of the cost (compared to 4% of men their age nationally who reported worsening health after skipping needed care for any reason).

Players living with disabilities are more likely than non-disabled players to report skipping or postponing needed health care because of the cost in the past 12 months (28% v. 11%) and to say their health got worse as a result (17% v. 3%). Forgoing needed health care is also much more common among players with lower household incomes. One-third (35%) of players with annual incomes below $90,000 say they’ve skipped or delayed needed care because of the cost in the past year, with one in four (23%) of this group overall reporting worse health for this reason. Far fewer players with annual incomes of $200,000 or more report skipping or postponing care because of the cost (9%) or worse health as a result (6%). Notably, players living with a disability report average lower incomes than players without a disability.

Financial Situation

While most 1988 NFL players say their football career had a positive impact on their finances and report higher average incomes than men their age overall, there are stark disparities in income and financial challenges among players by race and disability status. Black players are more likely than White players to report lower incomes, difficulties maintaining employment, affording health care and housing, having debt, and declaring bankruptcy. These issues are also reported in higher shares among players living with a disability, who are themselves made up of larger shares of Black players.

Players from the 1988 season – including Black players and White players – have higher self-reported household incomes than men their age overall. However, similar to disparities seen in the U.S. population, Black players are much more likely than White players to have lower household incomes. Four in ten Black players report incomes of less than $90,000 compared to just 16% of White players. Conversely, White players are twice as likely as Black players to report annual incomes of $200,000 or greater (42% v. 19%).

Most 1988 players (66%) say it was either “very” or “somewhat easy” for them to maintain steady employment or have a stable career after they stopped playing professional football, while one-third say it was either ”very” or “somewhat difficult.” The share who reports these difficulties, however, is much higher among Black players, lower-income players, and those living with a disability. For example, Black players are more than twice as likely as White players to say it was difficult to maintain steady employment or have a stable career after they stopped playing (44% vs. 20%).

About three in ten players (29%) say that since they stopped playing football they were at some point unable to work due to a disability that was the result of a football-related injury, including a larger share of Black players (37%) compared to White players (19%) and a larger share of defensive players (36%) compared to offensive players (25%). Among players who report being unable to work due to a football-related disability since they retired from the NFL, most (73%) say they were unable to work for a year or more, and half (48%) were unable to work for five years or longer.

Despite high rates of insurance coverage, some 1988 players report problems affording health care-related expenses, while one in ten or fewer report problems affording other needs like food and housing.

Overall, about one in six players from the ’88 season say that, in the past 12 months, they have had problems paying their medical bills (16%), and a similar share report problems affording health insurance (14%). Despite their relatively high incomes, one in ten say they’ve fallen behind in paying their rent or mortgage in the past year (10%), and about one in twenty report problems paying for food (6%). These affordability issues are far more common among players living with a disability compared to those who are not, including problems paying their medical bills (24% v. 5%), affording their health insurance (21% v. 5%), falling behind on their rent or mortgage (14% v. 2%) or problems affording food (10% v. 1%) in the past 12 months.

Black players are at least twice as likely as White players to report these affordability issues, including problems paying medical bills (22% v. 10%), affording health insurance (18% v. 10%), falling behind on housing costs (14% v. 23%), and problems paying for food (8% v. 3%).

Reflecting income differences, Black players are more likely to report experiencing certain financial hardships than White players, including having outstanding debt, declaring bankruptcy, and losing a home due to eviction or foreclosure. Overall, a quarter (24%) of 1988 players say they have debt that is past due or that they are unable to pay, while just under one in five say that, since they have stopped playing football, they declared personal bankruptcy (17%) or lost a home due to eviction or foreclosure (16%).

Black players are more than twice as likely as White players to say they have outstanding debt (34% v. 13%), three times as likely to say they’ve declared bankruptcy (24% v. 8%), and six times as likely to say they lost a home due to eviction or foreclosure (25% v. 4%) since they stopped playing football.

Details on Race and Ethnicity of 1988 Player Sample

For this survey, Black players include all players who identify as Black, including those who may also identify as another race and/or Hispanic. White players are those who identify White as their only racial identity and are non-Hispanic. While players who identified with other racial groups are included in the total, there are insufficient sample sizes to report findings among players who identify as Hispanic (n=9), Asian (n=1), American Indian (n=9), Native Hawaiian (n=1), or Pacific Islander (n=3).

Comparison of 1988 Player Sample to Full 1988 Player Population

The project team took careful consideration to ensure the sample accurately reflected the population under study. One step in order to accomplish this was to track the sample demographics to the population demographics across key variables such as race and ethnicity, position, teams, and years in the league. While the majority of this information was publicly available for the population, race and ethnicity were coded by researchers at Davis Research and KFF. The following tables compare the survey sample to the full 1988 player population who were alive at the time of fieldwork.

Positions Played by Race

This KFF/ESPN Survey of 1988 NFL Players was designed and analyzed by public opinion researchers at KFF in collaboration with reporters at ESPN. The survey was designed to reach a representative sample of former NFL players who participated in at least one game during the 1988 season. 1,532 individuals were identified as meeting this criteria. The survey was conducted from October 17 through November 30, 2024 online and by telephone. All fieldwork was managed by Davis Research.

Sample and Contact MethodsAll players included in the population were researched and contact information was verified using multiple sources including Lexis-Nexis and Marketing Systems Group (MSG). Of the 1,532 former NFL players who participated in at least one game during the 1988 season, 128 were identified as deceased either prior to fielding or learned about during fielding.  For those cases, interviews with proxy respondents were attempted. Population members were originally contacted using USPS business letter explaining the project and providing both a website to complete the survey as well as an inbound telephone number for the individual to complete the survey with a live trained interviewer. Nonresponse follow-up included email contacts, a reminder letter, as well as telephone calls and text messages. Each player record contained up to six telephone numbers, and attempts were made to contact each record up to eight times. Calls and text messages were made at various times, including evenings and weekends, to maximize response rates.

The final sample includes interviews with 546 former players. An additional 18 interviews with family members of deceased players, and 1 interview with a family member of a living player who was identified as having cognition issues helped to contribute to the reporting.

Participants, including proxy respondents, were offered a $100 gift card or the option to donate the amount to Gridiron Greats, a charity supporting former NFL players.

Representation Considerations The project team took careful consideration to ensure the sample accurately reflected the population under study. One step in order to accomplish this was to track the sample demographics to the population demographics across key variables such as race and ethnicity, position, teams, and years in the league. While the majority of this information was publicly available for the population, race and ethnicity were coded by researchers at Davis Research and KFF. Intercoder reliability was achieved with 10% of the population, Cohen’s kappa (κ) of .898.

In order to increase the likelihood of interviewing Black players, Davis Research in collaboration with KFF maximized efforts to increase participation for that population, including additional telephone calls to targeted records, mailing approximately 500 USPS Priority Mail envelopes to non-responsive records flagged as likely Black/African American, and conducted additional research to refine contact information for records flagged as likely Black/African American.

Response rates were closely monitored throughout fielding to ensure both quality and balanced representation. The net effective response rate (AAPOR Response Rate 5) for living players was 40% and 16% respectively for family members of deceased players.

The final sample quality was assessed by researchers and no weighting adjustments were needed. The margin of sampling error for the full sample is plus or minus 3 percentage points. Numbers of respondents and margins of sampling error for key subgroups are shown in the table below. For results based on other subgroups, the margin of sampling error may be higher. Sampling error is only one of many potential sources of error and there may be other unmeasured error in this or any other public opinion poll.

KFF public opinion and survey research is a charter member of the Transparency Initiative of the American Association for Public Opinion Research.

National comparison data throughout the accompanying reports is based on KFF analysis of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 2023 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS); National Center for Health Statistics 2023 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS); the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2023 American Community Survey (ACS); and KFF’s Racism, Discrimination, and Health Survey (June 6 – August 14, 2023.) Data from BRFSS is among men ages 55-74; all other data is among men ages 55-75. All estimates are based on self-reported survey results and may differ from other clinical estimates.

1. A series of logistic regression models were conducted to test whether the relationship between race and different health outcomes held after controlling for higher risk position groups, income, age, and years played. ↩︎
2. While CTE cannot definitively be diagnosed before death, these self-reports likely reflect instances where a health professional indicated to a player that they were showing signs or symptoms consistent with CTE. Other surveys of former professional football players have found that many players believe they have CTE. ↩︎

Key Takeaways

• Just over half (55%) of adults, including larger shares of young adults and Black and Hispanic adults, say they use social media to find health information and advice at least occasionally and most adults report seeing health-related content in the past month on social media, with the largest shares saying they’ve seen content about weight loss, diet, or nutrition (72%) and mental health (58%). Overall, fewer adults report seeing content related to vaccines (38%), abortion (30%), and birth control (22%). Even people who say they never use social media for health information and advice report being exposed to health information in the past month – with weight loss, nutrition, and diet information being the most common.
• Most adults are skeptical of the health information and advice they see across social media platforms. When asked to assess the health information and advice on various social media platforms, fewer than half say they find “most” or “some” of the information they see on each platform trustworthy, and less than one in ten say “most” of the information is trustworthy. There is some variance across platforms, with at least three in ten users of YouTube, TikTok, and Reddit saying they trust “some” of the health content they see, compared to about a quarter of Facebook, Instagram, and X users, and smaller shares of users of WhatsApp, Snapchat, and Bluesky who say this.
• About one in six (15%) social media users (14% of the public overall) say they regularly get health information and advice from social media influencers. Among those who report regularly getting health information and advice from influencers on social media, six in ten (61%) say health influencers are mostly motivated by their own financial interests, while about four in ten (39%) say health influencers are mostly motivated by serving the public interest. Among those who use social media for health information and advice, more than one-third (36%) say there is a particular influencer whom they trust when it comes to health information and advice (5% of total social media users), with a variety of individuals named, including conservative influencers, as well as doctors and other health care providers mentioned by name.

The Public’s Use of Social Media for Health Information and Advice

Just over half (55%) of adults say they use social media to find health information and advice “at least occasionally,” with larger shares of younger adults, and Black and Hispanic adults reporting this. Overall, about one in ten adults say they use these sites or apps to find health information and advice “everyday” (11%) or “at least once a week” (11%), 4% say they use it “at least once a month,” and about three in ten (29%) say they use it “occasionally” for this purpose. About four in ten (45%) adults say they never use social media to look up health information and advice. Younger adults and Black and Hispanic adults are more likely to report using social media to find health information and advice, while similar shares of social media users by gender and partisanship say they do this.

Majorities of the public report being exposed to health information and advice about weight loss, diet, and nutrition (72%) as well as mental health (58%) on social media in the past 30 days, with younger adults, women, and Democrats most likely to report seeing these topics. Overall, fewer adults report seeing other content related to vaccines (38%), abortion (30%), and birth control (22%) on social media in the past month. Democrats are more likely than their Republican counterparts to report seeing social media content in the past month related to mental health (61% vs. 49%), vaccines (43% vs. 31%), abortion (35% vs. 23%), and birth control (24% vs. 15%). Similar shares of adults by race and ethnicity report seeing most of these topics on social media, though White adults (41%) are more likely to report seeing content about vaccines compared with Black (34%) and Hispanic (29%) adults. Notably, sizeable shares of adults who say they “never” use social media to find health information and advice nonetheless report seeing these topics, including seven in ten who say they have seen weight loss, diet, and nutrition information on social media in the past month.

Less than one in ten social media users say they trust most of the health information and advice they see on social media platforms. At least three in ten users of YouTube, TikTok, and Reddit say “some” of the health content they see is trustworthy, as do about a quarter of those who use Facebook, Instagram, and X. Smaller shares of users of WhatsApp, Snapchat, and Bluesky say the same. Importantly, across all social media platforms, a majority of users say they trust the health information they see on the app either “a little” or say that none of the information is trustworthy.

On some of the most widely used social media apps or sites, large shares of younger adults trust the health information and advice they see. For example, just over half (54%) of TikTok users ages 18-29 say “most” or “some” of the health information and advice they see on the app is trustworthy, as do about half (47%) of young YouTube users, and about four in ten young Reddit (42%) and Instagram (38%) users. On lesser used sites by young adults like Facebook and X, younger adults are as trusting of the health information they see as older adults.

The Role of Social Media Health Influencers

About one in six (15%) adults who use social media (14% of the public overall) say they regularly get health information and advice from influencers on social media. Notably, the share who say they get health information and advice from social media influencers is much smaller than the share who say they get news about politics from social media influencers (38% say so). Certain groups are more likely to report relying on social media influencers for health information and advice including about one in five 18–29-year-olds (23%) and Black adults who use social media (21%). Perhaps unsurprisingly, more frequent social media users are more likely to say they get health information and advice from influencers than less frequent social media users. Similar shares of social media users by gender and partisanship say they get health information and advice from influencers. About one in five users of each social media platform say they regularly get health information and advice, ranging from 15% of YouTube users to 21% of TikTok users.

Among those who report regularly getting health information and advice from influencers on social media, six in ten (61%) say health influencers are mostly motivated by their own financial interests, while about four in ten (39%) say health influencers are mostly motivated by serving the public interest.

One-third (36%) of those who use social media for health information and advice say they trust a particular influencer for this (5% of total social media users). When asked to give the name or handle of the person whom they trust for health information and advice, a variety of individuals are mentioned, including Barbara O’Neill and Nurse Kate, conservative influencers like Ben Shapiro, Joe Rogan, as well as doctors and other health care providers who were mentioned by name.

This KFF Health Tracking Poll/KFF Tracking Poll on Health Information and Trust was designed and analyzed by public opinion researchers at KFF. The survey was conducted July 8-14, 2025, online and by telephone among a nationally representative sample of 1,283 U.S. adults in English (n=1,212) and in Spanish (n=71). The sample includes 1,004 adults (n=58 in Spanish) reached through the SSRS Opinion Panel either online (n=979) or over the phone (n=25). The SSRS Opinion Panel is a nationally representative probability-based panel where panel members are recruited randomly in one of two ways: (a) Through invitations mailed to respondents randomly sampled from an Address-Based Sample (ABS) provided by Marketing Systems Groups (MSG) through the U.S. Postal Service’s Computerized Delivery Sequence (CDS); (b) from a dual-frame random digit dial (RDD) sample provided by MSG. For the online panel component, invitations were sent to panel members by email followed by up to three reminder emails.

Another 279 (n=13 in Spanish) adults were reached through random digit dial telephone sample of prepaid cell phone numbers obtained through MSG. Phone numbers used for the prepaid cell phone component were randomly generated from a cell phone sampling frame with disproportionate stratification aimed at reaching Hispanic and non-Hispanic Black respondents. Stratification was based on incidence of the race/ethnicity groups within each frame. Among this prepaid cell phone component, 135 were interviewed by phone and 144 were invited to the web survey via short message service (SMS).

Respondents in the prepaid cell phone sample who were interviewed by phone received a $15 incentive via a check received by mail. Respondents in the prepaid cell phone sample reached via SMS received a $10 electronic gift card incentive. SSRS Opinion Panel respondents received a $5 electronic gift card incentive (some harder-to-reach groups received a $10 electronic gift card). In order to ensure data quality, cases were removed if they failed two or more quality checks: (1) attention check questions in the online version of the questionnaire, (2) had over 30% item non-response, or (3) had a length less than one quarter of the mean length by mode. Based on this criterion, 1 case was removed.

The combined cell phone and panel samples were weighted to match the sample’s demographics to the national U.S. adult population using data from the Census Bureau’s 2024 Current Population Survey (CPS), September 2023 Volunteering and Civic Life Supplement data from the CPS, and the 2025 KFF Benchmarking Survey with ABS and prepaid cell phone samples. The demographic variables included in weighting for the general population sample are gender, age, education, race/ethnicity, region, civic engagement, frequency of internet use, political party identification by race/ethnicity, and education. The weights account for differences in the probability of selection for each sample type (prepaid cell phone and panel). This includes adjustment for the sample design and geographic stratification of the cell phone sample, within household probability of selection, and the design of the panel-recruitment procedure.

The margin of sampling error including the design effect for the full sample is plus or minus 3 percentage points. Numbers of respondents and margins of sampling error for key subgroups are shown in the table below. For results based on other subgroups, the margin of sampling error may be higher. Sample sizes and margins of sampling error for other subgroups are available on request. Sampling error is only one of many potential sources of error and there may be other unmeasured error in this or any other public opinion poll. KFF public opinion and survey research is a charter member of the Transparency Initiative of the American Association for Public Opinion Research.