Community Health Centers and Medication-Assisted Treatment for Opioid Use Disorder

In the midst of the coronavirus pandemic, emerging evidence suggests drug overdoses, including opioid overdoses, are increasing.^1 ,2  As safety net primary care providers, community health centers play a significant role in efforts to address the ongoing opioid crisis and have become a major source of medication-assisted treatment (MAT), the standard of care for those with opioid use disorder (OUD). It is unclear whether health centers have the capacity to meet increasing demand due to the pandemic. This issue brief presents findings from a 2019 survey of community health centers on activities related to the prevention and treatment of OUD, with a focus on MAT, to assess services and capacity prior to the recent surge in need. Key findings include:

• As of 2019, an increasing share of health centers were providing MAT services. Nearly two-thirds of health centers (64%) reported offering MAT onsite, up from 48% in 2018. Health centers in Medicaid expansion states were more likely than those in non-expansion states to provide MAT onsite in 2019 (70% vs. 50%).
• Most health centers that provide MAT offer multiple treatment options for patients experiencing OUD. The majority (65%) of health centers with a MAT program offered at least two out of three available MAT medications for OUD, with buprenorphine (89%) and naltrexone (69%) most commonly offered. To ensure a continuum of care for OUD patients seeking treatment, health centers refer to a variety of providers; however, health centers with a MAT program are more likely than those without MAT onsite to refer patients to more intensive providers like residential treatment programs (71% vs. 46%), inpatient detox programs (69% vs. 50%), and partial hospitalization programs (36% vs. 22%).
• Health centers face many challenges meeting the high demand for OUD treatment. Despite increasing MAT services and treatment options from 2018, nearly half (47%) of health centers reported that they did not have the capacity to treat all patients seeking MAT. Among health centers that attempted to refer patients for MAT services, 66% said they face provider shortages in their community when doing so.

Targeted federal grants from 2016 to 2019 helped health centers to bolster MAT programs and establish new ones, although health centers continue to rely heavily on Medicaid to sustain MAT programs and services long-term. However, the high cost of providing MAT services remains a barrier in Medicaid expansion and non-expansion states alike, and these barriers will likely remain even as the coronavirus pandemic poses new challenges for health centers’ finances and capacity to provide OUD services.

Introduction

As the country struggles to respond to the coronavirus pandemic, emerging evidence suggests drug overdoses are increasing sharply, with an estimated 18% increase in overdoses since the start of stay-at-home orders in March through May 2020.³  The increase in overdoses is driven in part by the isolation, stigma, economic turmoil, and disruption in access to health care services caused by coronavirus.^4 ,5  Many of these overdoses are also related to the ongoing opioid crisis, which affects roughly two million Americans with opioid use disorder (OUD) and was linked to over 50,000 opioid overdose deaths in 2019.^6 ,7  Even prior to the coronavirus pandemic, access to OUD treatment was limited—only one in five people experiencing OUD received addiction treatment in 2018.⁸  Existing gaps in OUD treatment services have likely been exacerbated by the current crisis.

Community health centers play a significant role in addressing the opioid crisis as community-based primary care providers with the capacity to screen, treat, refer, and provide supportive services such as case management to patients experiencing OUD. Increasingly, health centers are providing medication-assisted treatment (MAT), which is considered to be the standard of care for OUD treatment.⁹  MAT includes treatment with one of three medications (methadone, naltrexone, and buprenorphine) along with counseling.¹⁰  Health centers primarily serve low-income populations who may otherwise have difficulty accessing affordable health care. Residents of the medically underserved communities in which health centers operate, including those experiencing OUD, are disproportionately uninsured, enrolled in Medicaid, or earn less than 200% of the federal poverty level.¹¹ 

Between 2016 and 2019, the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) awarded more than $1.4 billion in federal grants^{12 ,13 ,14 ,15 ,16}  to enable health centers to expand access to mental health and substance use disorder (SUD) services. Health centers used these grants to increase staff, to improve the integration of behavioral health and primary care, and to expand delivery of MAT.¹⁷  National data show that health centers increased their mental health and SUD staff by 51% from 2016-2019,¹⁸  with the vast majority (95%) of health centers offering mental health and/or SUD services onsite in 2018 (the latest year these data are available).¹⁹  Currently, health centers are eligible for a number of other federal grants to mitigate the steep revenue losses due to the coronavirus pandemic,²⁰  although these grants are meant to support health center capacity generally or to provide COVID-19 testing, rather than targeting OUD services specifically. Given the considerable federal investment in health centers to combat the opioid crisis as well as the increasing need for OUD services during the pandemic, it is important to understand health centers’ capacity to deliver MAT and the barriers they continue to face in providing OUD services.

This brief presents findings from a survey of health centers conducted in 2019, focusing on questions that examine community health centers’ provision of MAT services and capacity. Where possible, we highlight one-year trends from a 2018 community health center survey. We also highlight differences across health centers in Medicaid expansion and non-expansion states when the differences are significant. While the findings reflect health center responses before the coronavirus pandemic, they provide important context for understanding the issues health centers faced in providing MAT services prior to the pandemic and challenges that will likely persist following the pandemic’s resolution.

Treating Patients with Opioid Use Disorder

Over seven in ten health centers (71%) reported an increase in the number of patients with OUD from 2018 to 2019. Similar shares of health centers reported an increase in the number of patients with prescription OUD (62%) and nonprescription OUD, such as fentanyl or heroin (65%, Figure 1). These findings are generally consistent with provisional data on opioid overdose deaths in the U.S. that show an increase for 2019.²¹  The growth in health center patients experiencing OUD was likely due to a variety of factors, including new patients with OUD seeking care, improved screening practices to identify patients experiencing OUD, or an improved capacity at health centers to provide OUD services to more patients.

There was substantial growth in the number of health centers providing onsite MAT services from 2018 to 2019, particularly in Medicaid expansion states. Nearly two-thirds of health centers (64%) reported that they provide MAT medications, up from 48% in 2018, and the vast majority of these (87%) provide counseling as well. Health centers in Medicaid expansion states were more likely than those in non-expansion states to provide onsite MAT services (70% vs. 50%, Figure 2). The difference in MAT availability may be attributable to a greater OUD prevalence in Medicaid expansion states, which experienced an opioid-involved death rate of 16.1 per 100,000 population in 2018 (the latest year these data are available), compared to 11.4 per 100,000 in non-expansion states.²²  However, the difference in MAT availability is also likely related to increased revenue for OUD services in expansion states, since the Medicaid program reaches many of the adults most at risk for OUD. Other research has demonstrated a connection between Medicaid expansion and health center capacity.^23 ,24  At the same time, the availability of grant funding since 2016 has helped to ensure that health centers in both expansion and non-expansion states have been able to expand mental health and SUD services.

Most health centers that provide MAT services offer more than one medication, which gives providers options to meet patients’ needs. Among health centers that reported providing MAT, 60% offer two MAT drugs and 4% offer all three, while roughly one-third (35%) offer only one MAT drug (Figure 3). The most widely available drug is buprenorphine, with 89% of health centers that provide MAT medications reporting they provide it. A slightly smaller share (69%) reported offering naltrexone, and only 7% of health centers providing MAT medications reported offering methadone. Facilities must be certified as opioid treatment programs (OTPs) in order to dispense methadone, while buprenorphine and naltrexone can be prescribed in any setting where providers have a Drug Abuse Treatment Act of 2000 (DATA) waiver from the federal government.²⁵  Currently, all state Medicaid programs cover buprenorphine and naltrexone, although only 41 state programs cover methadone.²⁶  As part of a broader initiative to combat the opioid crisis, the SUPPORT Act, signed into law in 2018, will require all state Medicaid programs to cover all three MAT medications, counseling services, and behavioral therapy from October 2020 through September 2025,^27 ,28  although providers will still need to be certified OTPs to dispense methadone.

Health centers with a MAT program are more likely than those without to refer patients to services across the continuum of care for OUD. Depending on patients’ needs, OUD treatment may require services other than MAT. Some may require less intensive care such as recovery coaches or peer mentors. Others experiencing OUD may require more intensive services such as partial hospitalization programs, residential treatment programs, and inpatient detox programs. Health centers with MAT programs are more likely than health centers without a program to refer to providers offering specific services that are generally unavailable in health centers or other primary care settings, such as partial hospitalization and residential treatment programs (Figure 4). In contrast, health centers without a MAT program are more likely to refer to outpatient providers who could offer MAT, including health departments, certified behavioral health clinics, opioid treatment programs, and some primary care clinics. Relatively few health centers (7%) do not make any referrals for patients with OUD, and it is unclear whether the few that make no referrals do so because there is no perceived need for referrals or because there is a lack of OUD treatment providers in the community that accept Medicaid and uninsured patients, among other plausible explanations.

Roughly half of health centers (55%) distribute naloxone, an opioid overdose reversal drug. Even though naloxone is different from medications used in MAT for addiction, the continued, high rates of opioid overdose deaths have made naloxone (brand names include Narcan and Evzio) a critical tool in minimizing fatalities due to the opioid crisis, especially as suspected overdoses have risen during the coronavirus pandemic. Health centers in Medicaid expansion states were more likely to report providing naloxone than those in non-expansion states (60% vs. 43%, Figure 5), which could reflect underlying pharmacy policy, such as availability of naloxone without prior authorization, in these states.²⁹ 

Treatment Capacity Challenges

Health centers faced many challenges in meeting the high demand for treatment among their patients with OUD even before the recent surge in need. Nearly half (47%) of health centers operating a MAT program reported that they do not have the capacity to treat all patients seeking MAT (Figure 6). However, fewer health centers reported capacity issues in 2019 compared to 2018, when 63% of health centers operating a MAT program reported that they could not provide MAT services to all patients in need. Nearly seven in ten (68%) health centers that offer MAT services did not provide them at all sites, a rate that was stable between 2018 and 2019. Nearly three-quarters (74%) of all health centers (whether they provide MAT onsite or not) reported they refer patients for MAT services to other providers in the community. Among those health centers, two-thirds (66%) reported facing provider shortages when they attempted to refer patients, which was similar to the 68% reported in 2018.

Health centers with a MAT program cited a lack of physical space and high costs as top barriers to operating their programs. Nearly three in ten (29%) health centers with a MAT program reported that a lack of physical space was a barrier to operating their MAT program, which generally requires dedicated counseling space (for individual or group sessions) in addition to visits for prescriptions (Figure 7). Additionally, over a quarter (27%) of health centers with a MAT program said high costs hindered MAT program operations. Health centers in non-expansion states were more likely than health centers in expansion states to cite high costs (40% vs. 23%) and high numbers of uninsured patients (41% vs. 16%) as barriers to operating a MAT program (Appendix A Table 1). While federal grants have helped to increase the number of health centers providing MAT, those grants do not seem to be covering all operating expenses. Health centers in Medicaid expansion states appear to benefit from greater Medicaid enrollment, which results in payment for MAT program expenses that can make their programs sustainable, although high costs are still a significant barrier in both expansion and non-expansion states alike.

Health centers without a MAT program cited provider concerns as a top barrier to establishing a MAT program. Limited skills and/or confidence among providers to provide MAT services was the most common barrier (42%) to establishing a MAT program reported by health centers without a program, underscoring limited resources, capacity, or availability for provider training and technical assistance (Figure 8). Additionally, these health centers reported provider concerns about diversion – where patients transfer prescribed MAT medications to others – as a common barrier (33%). The second-most common barrier (37%) reported by health centers without a MAT program was a lack of physical space (Appendix A Table 2). This problem persists for health centers with or without a MAT program, as many health centers face the common challenge of balancing limited resources with patient needs. For example, 18% of health centers without a MAT program reported that either OUD was not a significant problem at their health center and/or their health center leadership have not identified OUD as a priority area of focus, likely reflecting the wide range of health needs in the communities in which health centers operate.

Looking Ahead

As a nationwide resource of community-based, safety net primary care providers, health centers play a key role in combatting the ongoing opioid crisis, especially as new reports show increases in suspected drug overdoses during the coronavirus pandemic. The majority of health centers provide MAT services to address the treatment needs of patients with OUD, and many health centers also distribute naloxone for opioid overdose reversal. Because of the broader coverage of patients and treatment services in Medicaid expansion states, health centers in expansion states appear to be better equipped to address demand for OUD services, including by providing MAT onsite and distributing naloxone. Although SUD service expansion grants helped to establish new MAT programs and bolster existing services, these grants do not fully address the ongoing, long-term costs associated with operating a MAT program, and health centers still reported challenges recruiting providers even with grant funding. While health centers in Medicaid expansion states were less likely than those in non-expansion states to cite costs as a barrier to operating MAT programs, costs still remain a barrier for many health centers, regardless of their state’s expansion status.

Health centers will face ongoing challenges in meeting demand for OUD treatment, including many new challenges caused by the social and economic disruptions from the coronavirus pandemic that were not captured in this survey. Health centers have had to fundamentally revamp their service delivery model due to social distancing measures, demand for testing services, and drops in patient visits, while at the same time facing revenue declines, temporary site closures, and a shrinking workforce.³⁰  In response, health centers have increased the use of telehealth as some states have eased restrictions on e-prescribing MAT medications. However, access to MAT treatment remains limited in some areas and returning to normal operations will be difficult for the foreseeable future and even after a coronavirus vaccine allows life to return to some normalcy. Given the role that health centers play in delivering MAT services, particularly in areas with the greatest accessibility barriers, their ability to continue providing these services during the pandemic and after will influence broader efforts to address the opioid crisis.

Appendix A

Appendix B

2019 Survey of Community Health Centers

(All other questions released separately)

---

Q18.    Looking back on the past year, has your health center seen an increase in patients:

With prescription opioid use disorder? [Yes, No, Don’t Know]

With nonprescription opioid use disorder? [Yes, No, Don’t Know]

---

Q19.    Does your health center provide medication-assisted treatment (MAT) medications for opioid use disorder on-site? [Respondents who selected “no” skipped to question 23.]

Yes, we provide MAT medications and opioid use disorder counseling on-site.

Yes, we provide MAT medications on-site, but not opioid use disorder counseling.

No, we do not provide MAT medications on-site.

---

Q20.    Does your health center provide on-site MAT services at all of your health center’s sites or only at some sites?

All sites

Only some sites

---

Q21.    Please indicate if your health center provides the following medications for opioid use disorder.

Methadone [Yes, No, Don’t Know]

Buprenorphine (brand names include Suboxone, Zubsolv, and Subutex) [Yes, No, Don’t Know]

Naltrexone (brand names include Vivitrol and ReVia) [Yes, No, Don’t Know]

---

Q22.    Does your health center currently have the capacity to treat on-site all patients who seek MAT serviced for opioid use disorder?

Yes, we have capacity to treat all patients who seek MAT services

No, we do not have capacity to treat all patients who seek MAT services

Don’t know

---

Q23.    Does your health center face provider shortages when attempting to refer patients elsewhere for MAT services?

We do not attempt to make referrals

Yes, we face provider shortages when trying to refer

No, we do not face provider shortages when trying to refer

Don’t know

---

Q24.    Does your health center refer patients with opioid use disorder to any of the following providers, programs, or community based organizations to create a continuum of care for recovery services? (Check all that apply).

No, we do not refer patients to other providers, programs, or organizations (if so, please do not select other options)

Certified community behavioral health clinics

Opioid treatment programs

Health departments

Inpatient detoxification programs

Residential treatment programs

Partial hospitalization programs

Recovery coaches or peer mentors

Other providers, programs, or organizations (please specify)

---

Q25.    Does your health center face any of the following barriers to establishing or operating a medication-assisted treatment (MAT) program? (Check all that apply).

No, opioid use disorder is not a significant problem at our health center so we do not need to establish a MAT program

Health center leadership have not identified opioid use disorder as a priority area of focus

Our leadership and/or providers prefer an abstinence-focused model to address opioid use disorder

Our providers have limited skills and/or confidence to provide MAT

Our providers have concerns about diversion of MAT medications

Our health center is not able to provide the psychosocial and behavioral therapy components of MAT

Cumbersome administrative requirements serve as a deterrent to providing MAT

Many of our patients with opioid use disorder are uninsured and we would not be reimbursed for providing MAT services

High costs to provide MAT

It is difficult to fit in the frequent appointments required for patients to receive their MAT medications

Lack of physical space for MAT program

We do not face any barriers in operating our MAT program

Other barrier to establishing or expanding a MAT program (please specify)

---

Q26.    Does your health center distribute naloxone (Narcan or Evzio) for opioid overdose reversals?

Yes

No

Don’t know

1. Ehley, B. (June 29, 2020). Pandemic unleashes a spike in overdose deaths. Politico. Retrieved from https://www.politico.com/news/2020/06/29/pandemic-unleashes-a-spike-in-overdose-deaths-345183 (accessed July 17, 2020). ↩︎
2. Alter, A. and Yeager, C. (June 2020). COVID-19 Impact on US National Overdose Crisis. Overdose Detection Mapping Application Program. Retrieved from: http://www.odmap.org/Content/docs/news/2020/ODMAP-Report-June-2020.pdf (accessed July 17, 2020). ↩︎
3. Ibid. ↩︎
4. Alter, A. and Yeager, C. (May 13, 2020). The Consequences of COVID-19 Overdose Epidemic. Overdose Detection Mapping Application Program. Retrieved from: http://odmap.org/Content/docs/news/2020/ODMAP-Report-May-2020.pdf (accessed July 17, 2020). ↩︎
5. Wan, W. and Long, H. (July 1, 2020). ‘Cries for help’: Drug overdoses are soaring during the coronavirus pandemic. Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2020/07/01/coronavirus-drug-overdose/ (accessed July 17, 2020). ↩︎
6. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2019). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. PEP19-5068, NSDUH Series H-54). Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2018-nsduh-annual-national-report (accessed February 11, 2020). ↩︎
7. Ahmad, F. B., Rossen, L.M., and Sutton, P. (2020). Provisional Drug Overdose Death Counts. National Center for Health Statistics. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/vsrr/drug-overdose-data.htm (accessed July 17, 2020). ↩︎
8. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2019). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. PEP19-5068, NSDUH Series H-54). Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2018-nsduh-annual-national-report (accessed February 11, 2020). Note: Treatment refers to services provided by specialty providers as defined in NSDUH, which includes “substance use treatment at a hospital (only as an inpatient), a drug or alcohol rehabilitation facility (as an inpatient or outpatient), or a mental health center. This NSDUH definition historically has not considered emergency rooms, private doctors’ offices, prisons or jails, and self-help groups to be specialty substance use treatment facilities.” ↩︎
9. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “Medication and Counseling Treatment.” Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment (accessed February 11, 2020). ↩︎
10. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “Medication-Assisted Treatment.” Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment (accessed February 11, 2020). ↩︎
11. Orgera, K. & Tolbert, J. (2019). The Opioid Epidemic and Medicaid’s Role in Facilitating Access to Treatment. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved from https://modern.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/the-opioid-epidemic-and-medicaids-role-in-facilitating-access-to-treatment/ (accessed August 4, 2020). ↩︎
12. Office of the Associate Administrator, Bureau of Primary Health Care, Health Resources and Services Administration. Email communication with the authors, March 3, 2020. ↩︎
13. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services Press Office. “HHS Awards $94 Million to Health Center to Help Treat the Prescription Opioid Abuse and Heroin Epidemic in America.” Retrieved from https://www.hhs.gov/hepatitis/blog/2016/03/17/hhs-awards-94-million-to-health-centers-to-help-treat-the-prescription-opioid-abuse-and-heroin-epidemic-in-america.html (accessed February 26, 2020). ↩︎
14. Bureau of Primary Health Care. “Fiscal Year 2017 Access Increase in Mental Health and Substance Abuse (AIMS) Awards.” Health Resources and Services Administration. Retrieved from https://bphc.hrsa.gov/programopportunities/fundingopportunities/aims/fy2017awards/index.html (accessed February 26, 2020). ↩︎
15. Bureau of Primary Health Care. “Fiscal Year 2018 Expanding Access to Quality Substance Use Disorder and Mental Health Services (SUD-MH) Awards.” Health Resources and Services Administration. Retrieved from https://bphc.hrsa.gov/programopportunities/fundingopportunities/sud-mh/fy2018awards/index.html (accessed February 26, 2020). ↩︎
16. Bureau of Primary Health Care. “FY 2019 Integrated Behavioral Health Services (IBHS) Awards.” Health Resources and Services Administration. Retrieved from https://bphc.hrsa.gov/program-opportunities/funding-opportunities/behavioral-health/awards (accessed February 26, 2020). ↩︎
17. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “Medication and Counseling Treatment.” Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment (accessed February 11, 2020). ↩︎
18. Bureau of Primary Health Care. 2016-2019 Uniform Data System. Health Resources and Services Administration. Retrieved from https://bphc.hrsa.gov/uds/datacenter.aspx and https://bphc.hrsa.gov/uds2016/datacenter.aspx?q=t5&year=2016&state=&fd= (accessed August 13, 2020). ↩︎
19. National Association of Community Health Centers. (2020). Community Health Center Chartbook. Figure 5-10. Retrieved from https://www.nachc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Chartbook-2020-Final.pdf (accessed August 4, 2020). ↩︎
20. Corallo, B. & Tolbert, J. Impact of Coronavirus on Community Health Centers. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved from https://modern.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/impact-of-coronavirus-on-community-health-centers/ (accessed July 17, 2020). ↩︎
21. Ahmad, F. B., Rossen, L.M., and Sutton, P. (2020). Provisional Drug Overdose Death Counts. National Center for Health Statistics. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/vsrr/drug-overdose-data.htm (accessed July 17, 2020). ↩︎
22. KFF analysis of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Health Statistics. Multiple Cause of Death 2018 on CDC WONDER Online Database, released in 2020. Note: Data are from the Multiple Cause of Death Files, 1999-2018, as compiled from data provided by the 57 vital statistics jurisdiction through the Vital Statistics Cooperative Program. Retrieved from: https://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd.html (accessed August 13, 2020). Drug overdose deaths were classified using the International Classification of Disease, Tenth Revision (ICD-10), based on the ICD-10 underlying cause-of-death codes X40–44 (unintentional), X60–64 (suicide), X85 (homicide), or Y10–Y14 (undetermined intent). Among the deaths with drug overdose as the underlying cause, the type of opioid involved is indicated by the following ICD-10 multiple cause-of-death codes: opioids (T40.0, T40.1, T40.2, T40.3, T40.4, or T40.6); natural and semisynthetic opioids (T40.2); methadone (T40.3); synthetic opioids, other than methadone (T40.4); and heroin (T40.1). Death rates are deaths per 100,000 population (crude). ↩︎
23. Rosenbaum, S., Tolbert, J., Sharac, J., Shin, P., Gunsalus, R. & Zur, J. (2018). Community Health Centers: Growing Importance in a Changing Health Care System. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved from https://modern.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/community-health-centers-growing-importance-in-a-changing-health-care-system/ (accessed July 17, 2020). ↩︎
24. Rosenbaum, S., Sharac, J., Shin, P & Tolbert, J. (2019). Community Health Center Financing: The Role of Medicaid and Section 330 Grant Funding Explained. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved from https://modern.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/community-health-center-financing-the-role-of-medicaid-and-section-330-grant-funding-explained/ (accessed August 4, 2020). ↩︎
25. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “Medication-Assisted Treatment.” Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment (accessed February 11, 2020). ↩︎
26. Kaiser Family Foundation. (2019). Medicaid’s Role in the Opioid Epidemic. Retrieved from https://modern.kff.org/infographic/medicaids-role-in-addressing-opioid-epidemic/ (accessed August 4, 2020). ↩︎
27. Gifford et al. (2019). A View from the States: Key Medicaid Policy Changes: Results from a 50-State Medicaid Budget Survey for State Fiscal Years 2019 and 2020. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved from https://modern.kff.org/medicaid/report/a-view-from-the-states-key-medicaid-policy-changes-results-from-a-50-state-medicaid-budget-survey-for-state-fiscal-years-2019-and-2020/ (accessed August 4, 2020). ↩︎
28. Musumeci M. & Tolbert, J. (2019). Federal Legislation to Address the Opioid Crisis: Medicaid Provisions in the SUPPORT Act. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved from https://modern.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/federal-legislation-to-address-the-opioid-crisis-medicaid-provisions-in-the-support-act/ (accessed August 4, 2020). ↩︎
29. Kaiser Family Foundation. Medicaid Behavioral Health Services Database. Retrieved from https://modern.kff.org/data-collection/medicaid-behavioral-health-services-database/ (accessed March 2, 2020). ↩︎
30. Corallo, B. & Tolbert, J. Impact of Coronavirus on Community Health Centers. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved from https://modern.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/impact-of-coronavirus-on-community-health-centers/ (accessed July 17, 2020). ↩︎