The Relationship Between Work and Health: Findings from a Literature Review

Issue Brief
  1. Sarah Olesen, Peter Butterworth, Liana Leach, Margaret Kelaher, and Jane Pirkis, “Mental Health Affects Future Employment as Job Loss Affects Mental Health: Findings from a Longitudinal Population Study,” BMC Psychiatry 13 (2013), https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-244X-13-144

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  2. Peter Butterworth, Liana Leach, Jane Pirkis, and Margaret Kelaher, ”Poor Mental Health Influences Risk and Duration of Unemployment: A Prospective Study,” Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 47 no. 6 (June 2012): 1013-1021, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00127-011-0409-1

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  3. Rogier van Rijn, Suzan Robroek, Sandra Brouwer, and Alex Burdorf, “Influence of Poor Health on Exit from Paid Employment: A Systematic Review,” Occupational & Environmental Medicine 71 no. 4, (2014): pp. 295-301, https://oem.bmj.com/content/71/4/295

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  4. Merel Schuring et al., “The Effect of Ill Health and Socioeconomic Status on Labor Force Exist and Re-Employment: A Prospective Study with Ten Years Follow-Up in the Netherlands,” Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment, and Health 39 no. 2 (March 2013): pp. 134.

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  5. Merel Schuring et al., “The Effects of Ill Health on Entering and Maintaining Paid Employment: Evidence in European Countries,” Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 61 (2007): pp. 597-604,  https://jech.bmj.com/content/61/7/597.full

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  6. Rogier van Rijn, Suzan Robroek, Sandra Brouwer, and Alex Burdorf, “Influence of Poor Health on Exit from Paid Employment: A Systematic Review,” Occupational & Environmental Medicine 71 no. 4, (2014): pp. 295-301, https://oem.bmj.com/content/71/4/295

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  7. Sarah Olesen, Peter Butterworth, Liana Leach, Margaret Kelaher, and Jane Pirkis, “Mental Health Affects Future Employment as Job Loss Affects Mental Health: Findings from a Longitudinal Population Study,” BMC Psychiatry 13 (2013), https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-244X-13-144

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  8. Victoria Blinder et al., “Women with Breast Cancer Who Work For Accommodating Employers More Likely To Retain Jobs After Treatment,” Health Affairs 36 no. 2 (February 2017), https://www.healthaffairs.org/doi/10.1377/hlthaff.2016.1196

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  9. Merel Schuring et al., “The Effects of Ill Health on Entering and Maintaining Paid Employment: Evidence in European Countries,” Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 61 (2007): pp. 597-604,  https://jech.bmj.com/content/61/7/597.full

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  10. Victoria Blinder et al., “Women with Breast Cancer Who Work For Accommodating Employers More Likely To Retain Jobs After Treatment,” Health Affairs 36 no. 2 (February 2017), https://www.healthaffairs.org/doi/10.1377/hlthaff.2016.1196

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  11. National Institute on Drug Abuse, Consequences of Drug Misuse (Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, March 2017), https://www.drugabuse.gov/related-topics/health-consequences-drug-misuse

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  12. Neil Jordan et al., “Economic Benefit of Chemical Dependency Treatment to Employers,” Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 34, 3(2008):311-319

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  13. Ronald C. Kessler et al., “Depression in the Workplace: Effects on Short-term Disability,” Health Affairs (Millwood) 18, 5(1999):163-71

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  14. Cheryl J. Cherpitel and Yu Ye, “Drug Use and Problem Drinking Associated with Primary Care and Emergency Room Utilization in the US General Population: Data from the 2005 National Alcohol Survey,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 97 3(2008):226-30

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  15. Doris J. James and Lauren E. Glaze, Mental Health Problems of Prison and Jail Inmates (Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, December 2006), https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/mhppji.pdf

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  16. The Ohio Department of Medicaid, Ohio Medicaid Group VIII Assessment: A Report to the Ohio General Assembly (The Ohio Department of Medicaid, January 2017).

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  17. University of Michigan Institute for Healthcare Policy & Innovation, Medicaid Expansion Helped Enrollees Do Better at Work or in Job Searches (June 2017), http://ihpi.umich.edu/news/medicaid-expansion-helped-enrollees-do-better-work-or-job-searches

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  18. Bureau of Business and Economic Research, The Economic Impact of Medicaid Expansion in Montana (University of Montana Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Prepared for the Montana Healthcare Foundation and Headwaters Foundation, April 2018), https://mthcf.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/BBER-MT-Medicaid-Expansion-Report_4.11.18.pdf

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  19. Jean Hall, Adele Shartzer, Noelle Kurth, and Kathleen Thomas, “Medicaid Expansion as an Employment Incentive Program for People With Disabilities,” American Journal of Public Health epub ahead of print (July 2018), https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/pdf/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304536

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  20. Heeju Sohn and Stefan Timmermans, “Social Effects of Health Care Reform: Medicaid Expansion under the Affordable Care Act and Changes in Volunteering,” Socius: Socialogical Research for a Dynamic World 3 (March 2017): 1-12, http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2378023117700903

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  21. Sohn and Timmermans used the volunteering supplement to the Current Population Survey (CPS) to measure volunteerism. Analyzed changes in formal volunteering based on two CPS questions: “Since September 1st of last year, have you done any volunteering activities through or for an organization?” and, “Sometimes people don’t think of activities they do infrequently or activities they do for children’s schools or youth organizations as volunteer activities. Since September 1st of last year, have you done any of these types of volunteer activities?”  Also separately analyzed changes in informal helping based on one CPS question: “Since September 1st of last year, have you worked with people in your neighborhood to fix or improve something?”

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  22. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  23. The authors judged 23 of these studies to be “high quality” studied from a methodological perspective, and they classified the remaining 10 as “low quality” studies from a methodological perspective.

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  24. Maaike van der Noordt, Helma IJzelenberg, Mariel Droomers, and Karin Proper, “Health Effects of Employment: A systematic Review of Prospective Studies,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 71 (October 2014): 730-736, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24556535

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  25. K. Hergenrather, et al., Employment as a Social Determinant of Health: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies Exploring the Relationship Between Employment Status and Physical Health, Rehabilitation Research, Policy, and Education (2015), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273333771_Employment_as_a_Social_Determinant_of_Health_A_Systematic_Review_
    of_Longitudinal_Studies_Exploring_the_Relationship_Between_Employment_Status_and_Physical_Health

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  26. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  27. Robert Jin, Chandrakant Shah, and Tomislav Svoboda, “The Impact of Unemployment on Health: A Review of the Evidence,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 153, no. 5 (September 1995), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1487417/

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  28. K. Hergenrather, et al., Employment as a Social Determinant of Health: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies Exploring the Relationship Between Employment Status and Physical Health, Rehabilitation Research, Policy, and Education (2015), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273333771_Employment_as_a_Social_Determinant_of_Health_A_Systematic_Review_of_
    Longitudinal_Studies_Exploring_the_Relationship_Between_Employment_Status_and_Physical_Health

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  29. Jennifer Pharr, Sheniz Moonie, and Timothy Bungum, “The Impact of Unemployment on Mental and Physical Health, Access to Health Care and Health Risk Behaviors,” International Scholarly Research Network Public Health (2012), https://www.hindawi.com/journals/isrn/2012/483432/  

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  30. Carl McClean et al., Worklessness and Health—What do we Know about the Causal Relationship? (London: Health Development Agency, 2005), http://www.employabilityinscotland.com/media/83147/worklessness-and-health-what-do-we-know-about-the-relationship.pdf

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  31. Gregory Murphy and James Athanasou, “The Effect of Unemployment on Mental Health,” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 72 (March 1999): 83-99, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1348/096317999166518

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  32. Sarah Olesen, Peter Butterworth, Liana Leach, Margaret Kelaher, and Jane Pirkis, “Mental Health Affects Future Employment as Job Loss Affects Mental Health: Findings from a Longitudinal Population Study,” BMC Psychiatry 13 (2013), https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-244X-13-144

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  33. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  34. Karsten Paul and Klaus Moser, “Unemployment Impairs Mental Health: Meta Analyses,” Journal of Vocational Behavior 74, no.3 (June 2009): 264-282, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001879109000037

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  35. Frances McKee-Ryan, Zhaoli Song, Connie Wanberg, and Angelo Kinicki, “Psychological and Physical Well-Being During Unemployment: A Meta-Analytic Study,” Journal of Applied Psychology 90 no. 1 (January 2005): 53-76, http://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0021-9010.90.1.53

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  36. Frances McKee-Ryan, Zhaoli Song, Connie Wanberg, and Angelo Kinicki, “Psychological and Physical Well-Being During Unemployment: A Meta-Analytic Study,” Journal of Applied Psychology 90 no. 1 (January 2005): 53-76, http://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0021-9010.90.1.53

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  37. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  38. Karsten Paul and Klaus Moser, “Unemployment Impairs Mental Health: Meta Analyses,” Journal of Vocational Behavior 74, no.3 (June 2009): 264-282, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001879109000037

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  39. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  40. Karsten Paul and Klaus Moser, “Unemployment Impairs Mental Health: Meta Analyses,” Journal of Vocational Behavior 74, no.3 (June 2009): 264-282, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001879109000037

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  41. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  42. Urban Janlert, Anthony Winefield, and Anne Hammarstrom, “Length of Unemployment and Health-Related Outcomes: A Life-Course Analysis,” European Journal of Public Health 25 no. 4 (August 2015), https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/25/4/662/2398865

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  43. Steve Crabtree, “In U.S., Depression Rates Higher for Long-Term Unemployed,” Gallup (June 2014), http://news.gallup.com/poll/171044/depression-rates-higher-among-long-term-unemployed.aspx

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  44. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  45. Frances McKee-Ryan, Zhaoli Song, Connie Wanberg, and Angelo Kinicki, “Psychological and Physical Well-Being During Unemployment: A Meta-Analytic Study,” Journal of Applied Psychology 90 no. 1 (January 2005): 53-76, http://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0021-9010.90.1.53

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  46. Existing research does suggest that for a minority of people, unemployment can lead to improved health and well-being. See Waddell and Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  47. Sergio Rueda et al., “Association of Returning to Work with Better Health in Working-Aged Adults: A Systematic Review,” American Journal of Public Health 102 no. 3 (March 2012): 541-556, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3487667/

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  48. Sergio Rueda et al., “Association of Returning to Work with Better Health in Working-Aged Adults: A Systematic Review,” American Journal of Public Health 102 no. 3 (March 2012): 541-556, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3487667/

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  49. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  50. Peter Butterworth et al., “The Psychosocial Quality of Work Determines Whether Employment Has Benefits for Mental Health: Results From a Longitudinal National Household Panel Survey,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine 68 no. 11 (2011): pp. 806-812, https://oem.bmj.com/content/68/11/806.long

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  51. Marianna Virtanen et al., “Temporary Employment and Health: A Review,” International Journal of Epidemiology 34 (2005): 610-622, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15737968

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  52. Pekka Virtanen, Urban Janlert, and Anne Hammarstrom, “Exposure to temporary employment and job insecurity: A Longitudinal Study of the Health Effects,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 68, no. 8 (August 2011): 570-574, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21081513

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  53. Joseph Grzywacz and David Dooley, “’Good jobs’ to ‘bad jobs’: replicated evidence of an employment continuum from two large surveys,” Social Science and Medicine 56 no. 8 (April 2003): 1749-1760, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12639591

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  54. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  55. David Dooley and JoAnn Prause, “Underemployment and Alcohol Misuse in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth,” Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 50 no. 6 (1998): 669-680, https://www.jsad.com/doi/pdf/10.15288/jsa.1998.59.669

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  56. JoAnn Prause and David Dooley, “Effect of Underemployment on School-Leavers’ Self-Esteem,” Journal of Adolescence, 20 no. 3 (1997): 243-260, http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1997-04916-002

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  57. Tae Jun Kim and O von dem Knesebeck, “Perceived job insecurity, unemployment and depressive symptoms: a systematic review and meta‑analysis of prospective observational studies,” International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 89 no. 4 (May 2016): 561-573, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26715495

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  58. Peter Butterworth et al., “The Psychosocial Quality of Work Determines Whether Employment Has Benefits for Mental Health: Results From a Longitudinal National Household Panel Survey,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine 68 no. 11 (2011): pp. 806-812, https://oem.bmj.com/content/68/11/806.long

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  59. Joseph Grzywacz and David Dooley, “’Good jobs’ to ‘bad jobs’: replicated evidence of an employment continuum from two large surveys,” Social Science and Medicine 56 no. 8 (April 2003): 1749-1760, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12639591

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  60. Sergio Rueda et al., “Association of Returning to Work with Better Health in Working-Aged Adults: A Systematic Review,” American Journal of Public Health 102 no. 3 (March 2012): 541-556, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3487667/

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  61. Ritam Chowdhury, Divyang Shah, and Abhishek Payal, “Healthy Worker Effect Phenomenon: Revisited with Emphasis on Statistical Methods – A review,” Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 21, no. 1 (2017): 2-8, http://www.ijoem.com/article.asp?issn=0973-2284;year=2017;volume=21;issue=1;spage=2;epage=8;aulast=Chowdhury

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  62. Pekka Virtanen, Urban Janlert, and Anne Hammarstrom, “Health status and health behaviour as predictors of the occurrence of unemployment and prolonged unemployment,” Public Health 127 no. 1 (January 2013): 46-52, https://www.publichealthjrnl.com/article/S0033-3506(12)00370-8/fulltext

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  63. Silje Kaspersen et al., “Health and Unemployment: 14 Years of Follow-Up on Job Loss in the Norwegian HUNT Study,” European Journal of Public Health, 26 no. 2 (April 2016): 312-317, https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/26/2/312/2570411

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  64. Catherine Ross and John Mirowsky, “Does Employment Affect Health?,” Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36 (September 1995): 230-243, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/15605496_Does_Employment_Affect_Health

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  65. Maaike van der Noordt, Helma IJzelenberg, Mariel Droomers, and Karin Proper, “Health Effects of Employment: A systematic Review of Prospective Studies,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 71 (October 2014): 730-736, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24556535

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  66. Maaike van der Noordt, Helma IJzelenberg, Mariel Droomers, and Karin Proper, “Health Effects of Employment: A systematic Review of Prospective Studies,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 71 (October 2014): 730-736, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24556535

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  67. Pekka Virtanen, Urban Janlert, and Anne Hammarstrom, “Exposure to temporary employment and job insecurity: A Longitudinal Study of the Health Effects,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 68, no. 8 (August 2011): 570-574, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21081513

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  68. Maaike van der Noordt, Helma IJzelenberg, Mariel Droomers, and Karin Proper, “Health Effects of Employment: A Systematic Review of Prospective Studies,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 71 (October 2014): 730-736, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24556535

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  69. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  70. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2017 Employer Health Benefits Survey (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, September 2017), https://www.kff.org/report-section/ehbs-2017-section-2-health-benefits-offer-rates/

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  71. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2017 Employer Health Benefits Survey (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, September 2017), https://www.kff.org/report-section/ehbs-2017-section-3-employee-coverage-eligibility-and-participation/

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  72. Kaiser Family Foundation analysis of 2017 Current Population Survey.

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  73. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2017 Employer Health Benefits Survey (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, September 2017), https://www.kff.org/report-section/ehbs-2017-section-6-worker-and-employer-contributions-for-premiums/

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  74. Julia Foutz, Anthony Damico, Ellen Squires, and Rachel Garfield, The Uninsured: A Primer - Key Facts about Health Insurance and the Uninsured Under the Affordable Care Act (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, December 2017), https://www.kff.org/uninsured/report/the-uninsured-a-primer-key-facts-about-health-insurance-and-the-uninsured-under-the-affordable-care-act/

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  75. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, “Opportunities to Promote Work and Community Engagement Among Medicaid Beneficiaries,” (Letter to State Medicaid Directors, CMS, January 2018), https://www.medicaid.gov/federal-policy-guidance/downloads/smd18002.pdf

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  76. Caroline Jenkinson et al., “Is Volunteering a Public Health Intervention? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Health and Survival of Volunteers,” BMC Public Health 13 (2013), https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-13-773

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  77. Caroline Jenkinson et al., “Is Volunteering a Public Health Intervention? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Health and Survival of Volunteers,” BMC Public Health 13 (2013), https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-13-773

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  78. Jerf Yeung, Zhuoni Zhang, and Tae Yeun Kim, “Volunteering and Health Benefits in General Adults: Cumulative Effects and Forms,” BMC Public Health 18 no. 8 (2018), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5504679/

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  79. Joseph Grzywacz and David Dooley, “’Good jobs’ to ‘bad jobs’: replicated evidence of an employment continuum from two large surveys,” Social Science and Medicine 56 no. 8 (April 2003): 1749-1760, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12639591

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  80. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  81. Carl Mclean et al., Worklessness and Health—What do we Know about the Causal Relationship? (London: Health Development Agency, 2005), http://www.employabilityinscotland.com/media/83147/worklessness-and-health-what-do-we-know-about-the-relationship.pdf

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  82. In 2016, 7% of nonelderly adults in Medicaid reported being in “poor” health compared to 2% of the US total nonelderly adult population, and 17% of nonelderly adults in Medicaid reported being in “fair” health compared to 9% of the US total nonelderly adult population (both differences between the two populations were statistically significant).

    A significantly greater percentage of Medicaid nonelderly adults compared to US total nonelderly adults also reported: that they often or sometimes cannot afford to eat balanced meals (26% vs. 11%), that they often or sometimes worry food will run out before they have money to buy more (34% vs. 15%), and that they are very or moderately worried about rent, mortgage, or other housing costs (42% vs. 24%). (Kaiser Family Foundation analysis of 2016 National Health Interview Survey data).

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  83. Julia Paradise and Rachel Garfield, What is Medicaid's Impact on Access to Care, Health Outcomes, and Quality of Care? Setting the Record Straight on the Evidence (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, https://www.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/what-is-medicaids-impact-on-access-to-care-health-outcomes-and-quality-of-care-setting-the-record-straight-on-the-evidence/

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  84. Julia Paradise, Barbara Lyons, and Diane Rowland, Medicaid at 50 (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, May 2015), https://www.kff.org/medicaid/report/medicaid-at-50/

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  85. For more detailed information on work requirement age exemptions by state, see the detailed work requirement waiver table that is downloadable through the KFF Medicaid Waiver Tracker: https://www.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/which-states-have-approved-and-pending-section-1115-medicaid-waivers/

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  86. Marcia Gibson et al., “Welfare-To-Work Interventions and their Effects on the Mental and Physical Health of Lone Parents and their Children,” The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (February 2018), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5846185/

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  87. Kimberly Narain et al. “The Impact of Welfare Reform on the Health Insurance Coverage, Utilization, and Health of Low Education Single Mothers,” Social Science and Medicine 180 (March 2017): pp. 28-35, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28319907

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  88. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  89. Maaike van der Noordt, Helma IJzelenberg, Mariel Droomers, and Karin Proper, “Health Effects of Employment: A systematic Review of Prospective Studies,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 71 (October 2014): 730-736, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24556535

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  90. Rachel Garfield, Robin Rudowitz, MaryBeth Musumeci, and Anthony Damico, Implications of Work Requirements in Medicaid: What Does the Data Say? (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, June 2018), https://www.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/implications-of-work-requirements-in-medicaid-what-does-the-data-say/

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  91. Joseph Grzywacz and David Dooley, “’Good jobs’ to ‘bad jobs’: replicated evidence of an employment continuum from two large surveys,” Social Science and Medicine 56 no. 8 (April 2003): 1749-1760, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12639591

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  92. Gordon Waddell and A. Kim Burton, Is Work Good for your Health and Well-Being?, (2006), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/is-work-good-for-your-health-and-well-being

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  93. Ibid.

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  94. MaryBeth Musumeci and Julia Zur, Medicaid Enrollees and Work Requirements: Lessons from the TANF Experience (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, August 2017), https://www.kff.org/report-section/medicaid-enrollees-and-work-requirements-issue-brief/#endnote_link_232243-20

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  95. LaDonna Pavetti, Work Requirements Don’t Cut Poverty, Evidence Shows (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, June 2016), https://www.cbpp.org/research/poverty-and-inequality/work-requirements-dont-cut-poverty-evidence-shows

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  96. Marcia Gibson et al., “Welfare-To-Work Interventions and their Effects on the Mental and Physical Health of Lone Parents and their Children,” The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (February 2018), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5846185/

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  97. Gayle Hamilton et al., National Evaluation of Welfare-to-Work Strategies: How Effective are Difference Welfare-to-Work Approaches? Five-Year Adult and Child Impacts for Eleven Programs, (Washington, DC: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, December 2001), http://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/full_391.pdf

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  98. Tazra Mitchell, LaDonna Pavetti, and Yixuan Huang, Life After TANF in Kansas: For Most, Unsteady Work and Earnings Below Half the Poverty Line (Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, February 2018), https://www.cbpp.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/1-23-18kstanf.pdf

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  99. Rachel Garfield, Robin Rudowitz, and MaryBeth Musumeci, Implications of a Medicaid Work Requirement: National Estimates of Potential Coverage Losses (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, June 2018), https://www.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/implications-of-a-medicaid-work-requirement-national-estimates-of-potential-coverage-losses/

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  100. John Cawley, Mathis Schroeder, and Kosali Simon, “How Did Welfare Reform Affect the Health Insurance Coverage of Women and Children?,” Health Services Research 41 no. 2 (April 2006), 486-506, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1702522/

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  101. Marianne Bitler, Jonah Gelbaxch, and Hilary Hoynes, “Welfare Reform and Health,” The Journal of Human Resources 40 no. 2 (2005): pp. 309-334, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4129526?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

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  102. Robert Kaestner and Neeraj Kaushal, “Welfare Reform and Health Insurance Coverage of Low-Income Families,” Journal of Health Economics 22 (2003): 959-981, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14604555

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  103. Kaiser Family Foundation, Participation in Welfare and Medicaid Enrollment (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, August 1998), https://www.kff.org/medicaid/participation-in-welfare-and-medicaid-enrollment/

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  104. John Cawley, Mathis Schroeder, and Kosali Simon, “How Did Welfare Reform Affect the Health Insurance Coverage of Women and Children?,” Health Services Research 41 no. 2 (April 2006), 486-506, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1702522/

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  105. Gayle Hamilton, Stephen Freedman, and Sharon McGroder, National Evaluation of Welfare to Work Strategies, (US Department of Health and Human Services, June 200), https://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/do_mandatory_welfare-to-work_programs_affect_fr.pdf

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  106. Robin Rudowitz and Rachel Garfield, 10 Things to Know About Medicaid: Setting the Facts Straight (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, April 2018), https://www.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/10-things-to-know-about-medicaid-setting-the-facts-straight/

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  107. Kaiser Family Foundation, Key Facts about the Uninsured Population (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, November 2017), https://www.kff.org/uninsured/fact-sheet/key-facts-about-the-uninsured-population/

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  108. Brenda J. Lohman et al., “Welfare Reform: What About the Children,” Welfare, Children & Families 02-1(2002): 1-8, https://works.bepress.com/brenda_lohman/3/

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  109. John Cook et al., “Welfare Reform and the Health of Young Children: A Sentinel Survey in 6 US Cities,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 156 no. 7, (2002): 678-684, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/203607

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  110. Gloria Krahn, Deborah Walker, and Rosaly Correa-De-Araujo, “Persons with Disabilities as an Unrecognized Health Disparity Population,” American Journal of Public Health 105 (April 2015), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4355692/

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  111. Samantha Artiga, Julia Foutz, Elizabeth Cornachione, and Rachel Garfield, Key Facts on Health and Health Care by Race and Ethnicity (Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation, June 2016), https://www.kff.org/disparities-policy/report/key-facts-on-health-and-health-care-by-race-and-ethnicity/

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  112. Mathematica Policy Research, Assisting TANF Recipients Living with Disabilities to Obtain and Maintain Employment:  Conducting In-Depth Assessments (Feb. 2008), https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/opre/conducting_in_depth.pdf

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  113. Heather Hahn et al., Work Requirements in Social Safety Net Programs, (Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, December 2017), https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/95566/work-requirements-in-social-safety-net-programs.pdf

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